Buddhism: The Self-Immolations in Tibet Continue

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The Self-Immolations in Tibet Continue Jan 31st 2013, 14:05 I haven't recently written about the self-immolations 0f Tibetan Buddhists in China, although certainly they have continued. Close to one hundred Tibetan Buddhists, mostly monks and nuns, have been known to have set fire to themselves over the past few months. This is hard to reconcile, given the First Precept -- do not kill. I understand the monastics are avoiding more conventional group protests after the 2008 Lhasa uprising ended in violence against Han Chinese by Tibetan laypeople. This violence enabled Beijing to avoid addressing the oppression that is at the root of the unrest. Now China is accusing specific Tibetans of inciting the self-immolations -- because people who burn themselves to death couldn't possibly do so out of their own convictions, I suppose. In the past several hours Chinese courts have convicted eight ethnic Tibetans of murder because a relative or associate self-immolated. They have to find somebody to blame but themselves. Awhile back Robert Thurman described this scene -- "One of the brave monks who set himself on fire did so in the close presence of Chinese military police, who were so confused by this astonishing gesture, they shot him and then proceeded to beat him as he was dying, as if to punish him for freeing himself from their punishments! It was a sign of their utter confusion." Perhaps they were punishing him for killing himself without proper authorization.

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Buddhism: How to Investigate the Dharma

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How to Investigate the Dharma Jan 30th 2013, 19:01 I've been working on an article about investigating dharma. This is one of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment, so it's quite important. But it's hard to explain how to do it. It's very different from the way we normally learn things. I've written in the past about the Zen "sink or swim" method, in which one is tossed into a deep pool of Mu with not much in the way of preparation. It appears to me that other schools walk practitioners through a system of analysis in which concepts eventually cancel each other out, so that nothing is left but the empty space of clarity (which is where the zennie may end up, too, if he doesn't drown. Or maybe it's if he does drown). It's very hard for westerners steeped in the Abrahamic traditions to not approach dharma as a belief system. It's possibly even harder to not approach dharma as something we can 'figure out" intellectually. However, the dharma that can be grasped conceptually is not the Buddha dharma. My best advice, for what it's worth, is to just practice. Take the Eightfold Path very seriously. Endeavor to keep the Precepts. Meditate or chant, or both, daily. Be mindful. Then, as you learn doctrine, neither believe  nor disbelieve. Don't treat dharma as ordinary knowledge. Take it in, and in a ripe moment it will reveal itself, although probably not all at once. That may not make sense, and maybe there's a better way to express it, and I'm very open to suggestions. It strikes me that many of the people pushing "natural" or "secular" Buddhism are, basically, cutting out of the dharma whatever they can't grasp intellectually.  They're cutting out the best parts, but this is what happens when you don't get the hang of dharma investigation.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: Buddhism and Sexism

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Buddhism and Sexism Jan 30th 2013, 11:04 Buddhist women, including nuns, have faced harsh discrimination by Buddhist institutions in Asia for centuries. There is gender inequality in most of the world's religions, of course, but that's no excuse. Is sexism intrinsic to Buddhism, or did Buddhist institutions absorb sexism from Asian culture? Can Buddhism treat women as equals, and remain Buddhism? The Historical Buddha and the First Nuns Let's begin at the beginning, with the historical Buddha. As told in "The First Buddhist Women," the Buddha originally refused to ordain women as nuns. He said that allowing women into the sangha would cause his teachings to survive only half as long â€"- 500 years instead of a 1,000. The Buddha's cousin Ananda asked if there was any reason women could not realize enlightenment and enter Nirvana as well as men. The Buddha admitted there was no reason a woman could not be enlightened. "Women, Ananda, having gone forth are able to realize the fruit of stream-attainment or the fruit of once-returning or the fruit of non-returning or arahantship," he said. Unequal Rules for Nuns The Vinaya-pitaka section of the Tripitaka (Pali Canon) records the original rules of discipline for monks and nuns. A bhikkuni (nun) has rules in addition to those given to a bhikku (monk). These include subordination to monks; the most senior nuns are to be considered "junior" to a monk of one day. Some scholars point to discrepancies between the Pali Bhikkuni Vinaya (the section of the Pali Canon dealing with the rules for nuns) and other versions of the texts, and suggest the more odious rules were added after the Buddha's death. Wherever they came from, over the centuries the rules were used in many parts of Asia to discourage women from being ordained. When the orders of nuns died out in India and Sri Lanka centuries ago, conservatives used the rules that called for monks and nuns to be present at nuns’ ordination to prevent the institution of new orders. Only recently has the ordination problem been solved by allowing properly ordained nuns from other parts of Asia to travel to ordination ceremonies. However, the establishment of nuns' orders in Tibet, where there had been no nuns before, for some time met with resistance. Even today, in some parts of Asia nuns receive less education and financial support than monks. Can Women Enter Nirvana? Buddhist doctrines on the enlightenment of women are contradictory. There is no one institutional authority that speaks for all Buddhism. The myriad schools and sects do not follow the same scriptures; texts that are central to some schools are not recognized as authentic by others. And the scriptures disagree. For example, the Larger Sukhavati-vyuha Sutra, also called the Aparimitayur Sutra, is one of three sutras that provide the doctrinal basis of the Pure Land school. This sutra contains a passage usually interpreted to mean that women must be reborn as men before they can enter Nirvana. On the other hand, the Vimilakirti Sutra teaches that maleness and femaleness, like other phenomenal distinctions, are essentially unreal. "With this in mind, the Buddha said, ’In all things, there is neither male nor female.’" The Vimilakirti is an essential text in several Mahayana schools, including Tibetan and Zen Buddhism. "All Acquire the Dharma Equally" In spite of the barriers against them, throughout Buddhist history many individual women have earned respect for their understanding of dharma. For example, during Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism's golden age (China, ca. 7th-9th centuries) women studied with male teachers, and a few were recognized as dharma heirs and Ch'an masters. These include Liu Tiemo, called the "Iron Grindstone"; Moshan; and Miaoxin. Eihei Dogen (1200-1253) brought Soto Zen from China to Japan and is one of the most revered masters in the history of Zen. In the Raihai Tokuzui, Dogen said, "In acquiring the dharma, all acquire the dharma equally. All should pay homage to and hold in esteem one who has acquired the dharma. Do not make an issue of whether it is a man or a woman. This is the most wondrous law of the buddha dharma." Buddhism Today Today, Buddhist women in the West generally consider institutional sexism to be vestiges of Asian culture that can be surgically excised from dharma. Some western monastic orders are co-ed, with men and women following the same rules. In Asia, nuns' orders are working for better conditions and education, but in many countries they have a long way to go. Centuries of discrimination will not be undone overnight. Equality will be more of a struggle in some schools and cultures than in others. But there is momentum toward equality, and I see no reason why that momentum will not continue.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: Mara, Lord of Death

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Mara, Lord of Death Jan 30th 2013, 11:04 Many supernatural creatures populate Buddhist literature, but among these Mara is unique. He is one of the earliest non-human beings to appear in Buddhist scriptures. He is a demon, sometimes called the Lord of Death, who plays a role in many stories of the Buddha and his monks. Mara is best known for his part in the historical Buddha's enlightenment. This story came to be mythologized as a great battle with Mara, whose name means "destruction" and who represents the passions that snare and delude us. The Buddha's Enlightenment There are several versions of this story; some fairly straightforward, some elaborate, some phantasmagorical. Here is a plain version: As the about-to-be Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, sat in meditation, Mara brought his most beautiful daughters to seduce Siddhartha. Siddhartha,however, remained in meditation. Then Mara sent vast armies of monsters to attack him. Yet Siddhartha sat still and untouched. Mara claimed that the seat of enlightenment rightfully belonged to him and not to the mortal Siddhartha. Mara's monstrous soldiers cried out together, "I am his witness!" Mara challenged Siddhartha, who will speak for you? Then Siddhartha reached out his right hand to touch the earth, and the earth itself spoke: "I bear you witness!" Mara disappeared. And as the morning star rose in the sky, Siddhartha Gautama realized enlightenment and became a Buddha. The Origins of Mara Mara may have had more than one precedent in pre-Buddhist mythology. For example, it's possible he was based in part on some now-forgotten character from popular folklore. Zen teacher Lynn Jnana Sipe points out in "Reflections on Mara" that the notion of a mythological being responsible for evil and death is found in Vedic Brahmanic mythological traditions and also in non-Brahamanic traditions, such as that of the Jains. In other words, every religion in India seems to have had a character like Mara in its myths. Mara also appears to have been based on a drought demon of Vedic mythology named Namuci. The Rev. Jnana Sipe writes, "While Namuci initially appears in the Pali Canon as himself, he came to be transformed in early Buddhist texts to be the same as Mara, the god of death. In Buddhist demonology the figure of Namuci, with its associations of death-dealing hostility, as a result of drought, was taken up and used in order to build up the symbol of Mara; this is what the Evil One is like--he is Namuci, threatening the welfare of mankind. Mara threatens not by withholding the seasonal rains but by withholding or obscuring the knowledge of truth." Mara in the Early Texts Ananda W.P. Guruge writes in "The Buddha's Encounters with Mara the Tempter" that trying to put together a coherent narrative of Mara is close to impossible. "In his Dictionary of Paali Proper Names Professor G.P. Malalasekera introduces Maara as 'the personification of Death, the Evil One, the Tempter (the Buddhist counterpart of the Devil or Principle of Destruction).' He continues: 'The legends concerning Maara are, in the books, very involved and defy any attempts at unraveling them.'" Guruge writes that Mara plays several different roles in the early texts, and sometimes seems to be several different characters. Sometimes he is the embodiment of death; sometimes he represents unskillful emotions or conditioned existence or temptation. Sometimes he is the son of a god. Is Mara the Buddhist Satan? Although there are some obvious parallels between Mara and the Devil or Satan of monotheistic religions, there are also many significant differences. Although both characters are associated with evil, it's important to understand that Buddhists understand "evil" differently from how it is understood in most other religions. Please see "Buddhism and Evil" for more explanation. Also, Mara is a relatively minor figure in Buddhist mythology compared to Satan. Satan is the lord of Hell. Mara is the lord only of the sixth heaven of the "desire realm" of the Triloka, which is an allegorical representation of reality adapted from Hinduism. On the other hand, Jnana Sipe writes, "First, what is Mara's domain? Where does he operate? At one point the Buddha indicated that each of the five skandhas, or the five aggregates, as well as the mind, mental states and mental consciousness are all declared to be Mara. Mara symbolizes the entire existence of unenlightened humanity. In other words, Mara's realm is the whole of samsaric existence. Mara saturates every nook and cranny of life. Only in Nirvana is his influence unknown. Second, how does Mara operate? Herein lays the key to Mara's influence over all unenlightened beings. The Pali Canon gives initial answers, not as alternatives, but as varying terms. First, Mara behaves like one of the demons of [then] popular thought. He uses deceptions, disguises, and threats, he possesses people, and he uses all kinds of horrible phenomena to terrify or cause confusion. Mara's most effective weapon is sustaining a climate of fear, whether the fear be of drought or famine or cancer or terrorism. Identifying with a desire or fear tightens the knot that binds one to it, and, thereby, the sway it can have over one." The Power of Myth Joseph Campbell's retelling of the Buddha's enlightenment story is different from any I've heard elsewhere, but I like it anyway. In Campbell's version, Mara appeared as three different characters. The first was Kama, or Lust, and he brought with him his three daughters, named Desire, Fulfillment, and Regret. When Kama and his daughters failed to distract Siddhartha, Kama became Mara, Lord of Death, and he brought an army of demons. And when the army of demons failed to harm Siddhartha (they turned into flowers in his presence) Mara became Dharma, meaning (in Campbell's context) "duty." Young man, Dharma said, the events of the world require your attention. And at this point Siddhartha touched the earth, and the earth said, "This is my beloved son who has, through innumerable lifetimes, so given of himself, there is no body here." An interesting retelling, I think.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: Buddhist Economics

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Buddhist Economics Jan 30th 2013, 11:04 The economic models and theories that prevailed through the 20th century are rapidly falling apart. Economists scramble to offer explanations and solutions. However, much of what has gone wrong was anticipated years ago by E. F. Schumacher, who proposed a theory of "Buddhist Economics." Schumacher was among the first to argue that economic production was too wasteful of the environment and non-renewable resources. But even more than that, he saw decades ago that ever-increasing production and consumption -- the foundation of the modern economy -- is unsustainable. He criticized policy makers who measure success by the growth of GNP, irrespective of how the growth comes about or who it benefits. E. F. Schumacher Ernst Friedrich "Fritz" Schumacher (1911-1977) studied economics at Oxford and Columbia University and for a time was a protégé of John Maynard Keynes. For several years he was the Chief Economic Adviser to Britain's National Coal Board. He also was an editorialist and writer for the Times of London. In the early 1950s Schumacher became intrested in Asian philosophies. He was influenced by Mohandas Ghandi and G.I. Gurdjieff, and also by his friend, the Buddhist writer Edward Conze. In 1955 Schumacher went to Burma to work as an economic consultant. While he was there, he spent weekends in a Buddhist monastery learning to meditate. The meditation, he said, gave him more mental clarity than he had ever had before. The Meaning and Purpose of Life vs. Economics While in Burma he wrote a paper called "Economics in a Buddhist Country" in which he argued that economics does not stand on its own feet, but instead "is derived from a view of the meaning and purpose of life -- whether the economist himself knows this or not." In this paper, he wrote that a Buddhist approach to economics would be based on two principles: The ideal is sufficiency, not surfeit. "Economic 'progress' is good only to the point of sufficiency, beyond that, it is evil, destructive, uneconomic." A Buddhist economy distinguishes between renewable and non-renewable resources. A civilization built on renewable resources is superior to one built on non-renewable resources. The second principle might not seem original now, but in 1955 it was economic heresy. I suspect the first principle is still economic heresy. "Standing Truth on Its Head" After his return to Britain, Schumacher continued to study, think, write, and lecture. In 1966 he wrote an essay in which he laid out the principles of Buddhist economics in more detail. This essay, "Buddhist economics," can be read in full online. Very briefly, Schumacher wrote that western economics measures "standard of living" by "consumption" and assumes a person who consumes more is better off than one who consumes less. He also discusses the fact that employers consider their workers to be "cost" to be reduced as much as possible, and that modern manufacturing uses production processes that require little skill. And he pointed to discussions among economic theories about whether full employment "pays," or whether some amount of unemployment might be better "for the economy." "From a Buddhist point of view," Schumacher wrote, "this is standing the truth on its head by considering goods as more important than people and consumption as more important than creative activity. It means shifting the emphasis from the worker to the product of work, that is, from the human to the subhuman, a surrender to the forces of evil." In short, Schumacher argued that an economy should exist to serve the needs of people. But in a "materialist" economy, people exist to serve the economy. He also wrote that labor should be about more than production. Work has psychological and spiritual value also (see "Right Livelihood"), and these should be respected. Small Is Beautiful In 1973, "Buddhist Economics" and other essays were published together in a book called Small Is Beautiful: Economics As If People Mattered. Schumacher promoted the idea of "enoughness," or providing what is sufficient. Instead of ever-increasing consumption, the emphasis should be on meeting human needs with no more consumption than is necessary, he argued. From a Buddhist perspective, there is a great deal more that could be said about an economic system that sustains itself by stoking desire and reinforcing the notion that acquiring things will make us happier. We end up with no end of entertaining consumer products that soon end up in landfills, but we fail to provide for some basic human needs, like health care for everyone. Economists scoffed when Small Is Beautiful was published. But although Schumacher made some errors and miscalculations, on the whole his ideas have stood up very well. These days they look downright prophetic.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: Magha Puja

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Magha Puja Jan 29th 2013, 11:04 Magha Puja, also called Sangha Day or Fourfold Assembly Day, in most Buddhist countries is observed on the first full moon day of March. The day commemorates a time when 1,250 enlightened monks, disciples of the historical Buddha, spontaneously came together to pay respect to the Buddha. The day is called “Fourfold Assembly” Day because All the monks were arhats. All the monks had been ordained by the Buddha. The monks came together as if by chance, without any planning or prior appointment It was the full moon day of Magha (March). When the monks were assembled, the Buddha delivered a sermon in which he asked the monks to do good, to abstain from bad action, and to purify the mind. The word sangha refers to the community of Buddhists, either all Buddhists everywhere or a particular fellowship of Buddhists. Although sangha can refer to both monks and laypeople, Magha Puja Day is called “Sangha Day” because it is a day to show appreciation to the monastic sangha. On this day laypeople gather at temples, usually in the morning, bringing with them offerings of food and other items for the monastics. Magha Puja observations usually feature processions, sometimes by candlelight. Observers walk around a shrine or Buddha image or through a temple three times, once for each of the Three Jewels â€" The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. In Thailand, this same holiday is called Makha Bucha and is observed about a month earlier.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: Meal Chants

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Meal Chants Jan 29th 2013, 11:04 All schools of Buddhism have rituals involving food -- offering food, receiving food, eating food. For example, the practice of giving food to monks begging for alms began during the life of the historical Buddha and continues to this day. But what about the food we eat ourselves? What is the Buddhist equivalent for "saying grace"? Zen Meal Chant: Gokan-no-ge There are several chants that are done before and after meals to express gratitude. Gokan-no-ge, the "Five Reflections" or "Five Remembrances," is from the Zen tradition. First, let us reflect on our own work and the effort of those who brought us this food. Second, let us be aware of the quality of our deeds as we receive this meal. Third, what is most essential is the practice of mindfulness, which helps us to transcend greed, anger and delusion. Fourth, we appreciate this food which sustains the good health of our body and mind. Fifth, in order to continue our practice for all beings we accept this offering. The translation above is the way it is chanted in my sangha, but there are several variations. Let's look at this verse one line at a time. First, let us reflect on our own work and the effort of those who brought us this food. I've also seen this line translated "Let us reflect on the effort that brought us this food and consider how it comes to us." This is an expression of gratitude. The Pali word translated as "gratitude," katannuta, literally means "knowing what has been done." In particular, it is recognizing what has been done for one's benefit. The food, of course, didn't grow and cook itself. There are cooks; there are farmers; there are groceries; there is transportation. If you think about every hand and transaction between a spinach seed and the pasta primavera on your plate, you realize that this food is the culmination of countless labors. If you add to that everyone who has touched the lives of the cooks and farmers and grocers and truck drivers who made this pasta primavera possible, suddenly your meal becomes an act of communion with vast numbers of people in the past, present and future. Give them your gratitude. Second, let us be aware of the quality of our deeds as we receive this meal. We have reflected on what others have done for us. What are we doing for others? Are we pulling our weight? Is this food being put to good use by sustaining us? This line is also sometimes translated "As we receive this food, let us consider whether our virtue and practice deserve it." Third, what is most essential is the practice of mindfulness, which helps us to transcend greed, anger and delusion. Greed, anger and delusion are the three poisons that cultivate evil. With our food, we must take particular care to not be greedy. Fourth, we appreciate this food which sustains the good health of our body and mind. We remind ourselves that we eat to sustain our life and health, not to indulge in sensory pleasure. (Although, of course, if your food does taste good, it's fine to mindfully enjoy it.) Fifth, in order to continue our practice for all beings we accept this offering. We remind ourselves of our bodhisattva vows to bring all beings to enlightenment. When the Five Reflections are chanted before a meal, these four lines are added after the Fifth Reflection: The first morsel is to cut all delusions. The second morsel is to maintain our clear mind. The third morsel is to save all sentient beings. May we awaken together with all beings. A Theravada Meal Chant Theravada is the oldest school of Buddhism. This Theravada chant also is a reflection: Wisely reflecting, I use this food not for fun, not for pleasure, not for fattening, not for beautification, but only for the maintenance and nourishment of this body, for keeping it healthy, for helping with the Spiritual Life; Thinking thus, I will allay hunger without overeating, so that I may continue to live blamelessly and at ease. The Second Noble Truth teaches that the cause of suffering (dukkha) is craving or thirst. We continually search for something outside ourselves to make us happy. But no matter how successful we are, we never remain satisfied. It's important not to be greedy about food. A Meal Chant From the Nichiren School This Nichiren Buddhist chant reflects a more devotional approach to Buddhism. The rays of the sun, moon and stars which nourish our bodies, and the five grains of the earth which nurture our spirits are all the gifts of the Eternal Buddha. Even a drop of water or a grain of rice is nothing but the result of meritorious work and hard labor. May this meal help us to maintain the health in body and mind, and to uphold the teachings of the Buddha to repay the Four Favors, and to perform the pure conduct of serving others. Nam Myoho Renge Kyo. Itadakimasu. To "repay the Four Favors" in the Nichiren school is to repay the debt we owe our parents, all sentient beings, our national rulers, and the Three Treasures (the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha). "Nam Myoho Renge Kyo" means "devotion to the Mystic Law of the the Lotus Sutra," which is the foundation of Nichiren practice. "Itadakimasu" means "I receive," and is an expression of gratitude to everyone who had a hand in preparing the meal. In Japan, it is also used to mean something like "Let's eat!" Gratitude and Reverence Before his enlightenment, the historical Buddha weakened himself with fasting and other ascetic practices. Then a young woman offered him a bowl of milk, which he drank. Strengthened, he sat beneath a bodhi tree and began to meditate, and in this way he realized enlightenment. From a Buddhist perspective, eating is more than just taking in nourishment. It is an interaction with the entire phenomenal universe. It is a gift given us through the work of all beings. We vow to be worthy of the gift and work to benefit others. Food is received and eaten with gratitude and reverence.

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Buddhism: Is Second Life Dukkha, Too?

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Is Second Life Dukkha, Too? Jan 28th 2013, 15:34 An assistant professor at Kansas State University is researching the spread of Buddhism in virtual reality. As part of this, she is studying the development of Buddhist communities in Second Life. I confess I have ventured into Second Life only a couple of times. The first time I became frustrated because my avatar persisted in having a rabbit head, and I did not want a rabbit head. A few years later I tried again, and managed to create a nicer avatar who wandered around on an island for awhile. As fun as that was, somehow I just never got into Second Life. Maybe I'll check it out again, though. Apparently there are temples where avatars can meditate. Does anyone here have any experience with Second Life Buddhism?

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Buddhism: Most Popular Articles: Jizo Bosatsu

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Jizo Bosatsu Jan 28th 2013, 11:27 His Sanskrit name is Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva, and he is known in China as Dizang or Ti-ts'ang. He is the bodhisattva of hell beings, having vowed not to enter Nirvana until the Hell Realm is empty. His vow: "Not until the hells are emptied will I become a Buddha; not until all beings are saved will I certify to As Jizo, the bodhisattva has become one of the most beloved figures of Japanese Buddhism. Stone figures of Jizo populate cemeteries, temple grounds, and country roads. Often several Jizos stand together, dressed in bibs or children's clothes. Jizo is the protector of children, expectant mothers, firemen, and travelers. Most of all, he is the protector of deceased children, including miscarried, aborted or stillborn infants. In Japanese folklore, Jizo hides the children in his robes to protect them from demons and guide them to salvation. When he is not portrayed carrying children, Jizo carries a wish-fulfilling jewel and a staff with six rings to show his mastery of the Six Realms.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: Naga

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Naga Jan 28th 2013, 11:05 Definition: Nagas are serpent beings from ancient Indian mythology. In early Hindu art, Nagas have human upper torsos but are snakes from the waist down. In Buddhist iconography, nagas sometimes are giant cobras, and sometimes they are more like dragons, but without legs. In some parts of Asia, dragons are considered to be a type of naga. In Buddhist sutras and myths, nagas usually are wise and beneficent. In Mahayana Buddhism, nagas often are depicted as water deities who guard the sutras in their palaces. For example, it is said the Wisdom Sutras were given to the nagas by the Buddha, who said the world wasn't ready for their teachings. Centuries later they befriended the philosopher Nagarjuna and gave the sutras to him.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: Origins of the Pali Canon

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Origins of the Pali Canon Jan 28th 2013, 11:05 More than two millennia ago the oldest scriptures of Buddhism were gathered into a mighty collection. The collection was called (in Sanskrit) "Tripitaka," or (in Pali) "Tipitaka," which means "three baskets," because it is organized into three major sections. It also is called the "Pali Canon" because it is preserved in a language called Pali, which is a variation of Sanskrit. The Tripitaka is the doctrinal foundation of Theravada Buddhism, and the sutras preserved in the Tripitaka are acknowledged by (I believe) all schools of Buddhism to be those of the historical Buddha. The collection is so vast that, it is said, it would fill thousands of pages and several volumes if translated into English and published. The sutra section alone, I'm told, contains more than 10,000 separate texts. The Tripitaka was not, however, written during the life of the Buddha, in the late 5th century BCE, but in the 1st century BCE. The texts were kept alive through the years, according to legend, by being memorized and chanted by generations of monks. This is a matter that must be accepted on faith, as there is little historical corroboration of the origins of the texts. Here is the story generally accepted by Buddhists about how the Tripitaka originated: The First Buddhist Council About three months after the death of the historical Buddha, ca. 480 BCE, 500 of his disciples gathered in Rajagaha, in what is now northeast India. This gathering came to be called the First Buddhist Council. The purpose of the Council was to review the Buddha's teachings and take steps to preserve them. The Council was convened by Mahakasyapa, an outstanding student of the Buddha who became leader of the sangha after the Buddha's death. Mahakasyapa had heard a monk remark that the death of the Buddha meant monks could abandon the rules of discipline and do as they liked. So, the Council's first order of business was to review the rules of discipline for monks and nuns. A venerable monk named Upali was acknowledged to have the most complete knowledge of the Buddha's rules of monastic conduct. Upali presented all of the Buddha's rules of monastic discipline to the assembly, and his understanding was questioned and discussed by the 500 monks. The assembled monks eventually agreed that Upali's recitation of the rules was correct, and the rules as Upali remembered them were adopted by the Council. Then Mahakasyapa called on Ananda, a cousin of the Buddha who had been the Buddha's closest companion. Ananda was famous for his prodigious memory. Ananda recited all of the Buddha's sermons from memory, a feat that surely took several days. (Ananda began all of his recitations with the words "Thus I have heard," and so all Buddhist sutras begin with those words.) The Council agreed that Ananda's recitation was accurate, and the collection of sutras Ananda recited was adopted by the Council. Two of Three Baskets It was from the presentations of Upali and Ananda at the First Buddhist Council that the first two sections, or "baskets," came into being: The Vinaya-pitaka, "Basket of Discipline." This section is attributed to the recitation of Upali. It is a collection of texts concerning the rules of discipline and conduct for monks and nuns. The Vinaya-pitaka not only lists rules but also explains the circumstances that caused the Buddha to make many of the rules. These stories show us much about how the original sangha lived. The Sutra-pitaka,"Basket of Sutras." This section is attributed to the recitation of Ananda. It contains thousands of sermons and discourses -- sutras (Sanskrit) or suttas (Pali) -- attributed to the Buddha and a few of his disciples. This "basket" is further subdivided into five nikayas, or "collections," although the names of the collections are not terribly helpful for understanding what's in them -- the "long collection," the "middle-length collection," the "grouped collection," etc. Some of the nikayas are further divided into vaggas, or "divisions." Although Ananda is said to have recited all of the Buddha's sermons, some parts of the Khuddaka Nikaya -- "collection of little texts" -- were not incorporated into the canon until the Third Buddhist Council. The Third Buddhist Council According to some accounts, the Third Buddhist Council was convened about 250 BCE to clarify Buddhist doctrine and stop the spread of heresies. (Other accounts preserved in some schools record an entirely different Third Buddhist Council.) It was at this council that the entire Pali Canon version of the Tripitaka was recited and adopted in final form, including the third basket. Which is ... The Abhidharma-pitaka, "Basket of Special Teachings." This section, also called the Abhidhamma-pitaka, contains commentaries and analyses of the sutras. The Abhidharma-pitaka explores the psychological and spiritual phenomena described in the sutras and provides a theoretical foundation for understanding them. Where did the Abhidharma-pitaka come from? According to legend, the Buddha spent the first few days after his enlightenment formulating the contents of the third basket. Seven years later he preached the teachings of the third section to devas (gods). The only human who heard these teachings was his disciple Shariputra, who passed the teachings on to other monks. These teachings were preserved by chanting and memory, as were the sutras and the rules of discipline. Note that the Pali Canon Abdhidharma is not the only version. There is an entirely different Abhidharma that was originally written in Sanskrit, and there are fragments of even more versions in other languages. Also, there are hints in the historical record that there were other pitakas beyond the three in the Pali Canon that have been lost. Please continue to the next part to find out how the Tripitaka came to be written.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: The Five Dhyani Buddhas: Akshobhya Buddha

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The Five Dhyani Buddhas: Akshobhya Buddha Jan 27th 2013, 11:04 Akshobhya was a monk who vowed never to feel anger or disgust at another being. He was immovable in keeping this vow, and after long striving he became a Buddha. Akshobhya is a heavenly Buddha who reigns over the eastern paradise, Abhirati. (Note that the eastern paradise is understood to be a state of mind, not a physical place.) Those who fulfill Akshobhya's vow are reborn in Abhirati and cannot fall back into lower states of consciousness. In Buddhist iconography, Akshobhya usually is blue, sometimes gold. He is most often pictured touching the earth with his right hand. This is the earth-touching mudra, which is the gesture used by the historical Buddha when he asked the earth to bear witness to his enlightenment. In his left hand Akshobhya holds a vajra, the symbol of shunyata -- an absolute reality that is all things and beings, unmanifested. Akshobhya also is associated with the fifth skandha, consciousness. In Buddhist tantra, evoking Akshobhya in meditation helps overcome anger and hatred.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: The Five Dhyani Buddhas: Vairocana Buddha

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The Five Dhyani Buddhas: Vairocana Buddha Jan 27th 2013, 11:04 Vairocana Buddha is sometimes called the primordial Buddha or supreme Buddha. He represents the wisdom of shunyata, "emptiness." He is considered a personification of the dharmakaya -- everything, unmanifested, free of characteristics and distinctions. When the Dhyani Buddhas are pictured together in a mandala, Vairocana is at the center. Vairocana is white, representing all colors, and his his symbol is the Dharma wheel. His hand mudra represents the turning of the wheel. He is associated with the first skandha, form. Meditation on Vairocana vanquishes ignorance.

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Buddhism: What's Hot Now: Happiness

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Happiness Jan 26th 2013, 11:04 The Buddha taught that happiness is one of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment. But what is happiness? Dictionaries say happiness is a range of emotions, from contentment to joy. We might think of happiness as an ephemeral thing that floats in and out of our lives, or as our life's essential goal, or as just the opposite of "sadness." One word for "happiness" from the early Pali texts is piti, which is a deep tranquility or rapture. In order to understand the Buddha's teachings on happiness, it's important to understand piti. True Happiness Is a State of Mind As the Buddha explained these things, physical and emotional feelings (vedana) correspond or attach to an object. For example, the sensation of hearing is created when a sense organ (ear) comes in contact with a sense object (sound). Similarly, ordinary happiness is a feeling that has an object -- for example, a happy event, winning a prize, or wearing pretty new shoes. The problem with ordinary happiness is that it never lasts, because the objects of happiness don't last. A happy event is soon followed by a sad one, and shoes wear out. Unfortunately, most of us go through life looking for things to "make us happy." But our happy "fix" is never permanent, so we keep looking. The happiness that is a factor of enlightenment is not dependent on objects, but is a state of mind cultivated through mental discipline. Because it is not dependent on an impermanent object, it does not come and go. A person who has cultivated piti still feels the effects of transitory emotions -- happiness or sadness -- but appreciates their impermanence and essential unreality. He or she is not perpetually grasping for wanted things while avoiding unwanted things (see equanimity). Happiness First Most of us are drawn to the dharma because we want to do away with whatever we think is making us unhappy. We might think that if we realize enlightenment, then we will be happy all the time. But the Buddha said that's not exactly how it works. We don't realize enlightenment to find happiness. Instead, he taught his disciples to cultivate the mental state of happiness in order to realize enlightenment. The Theravadin teacher Piyadassi Thera (1914-1998) said that piti is "a mental property (cetasika) and is a quality which suffuses both the body and mind." He continued, "The man lacking in this quality cannot proceed along the path to enlightenment. There will arise in him a sullen indifference to the dhamma, an aversion to the practice of meditation, and morbid manifestations. It is, therefore, very necessary that a man striving to attain enlightenment and final deliverance from the fetters of samsara, that repeated wandering, should endeavor to cultivate the all-important factor of happiness." How to Cultivate Happiness In the book The Art of Happiness, His Holiness the Dalai Lama said, "So, actually the practice of Dharma is a constant battle within, replacing previous negative conditioning or habituation with new positive conditioning." This is the most basic means of cultivating piti. Sorry; no quick fixes or three simple steps to lasting bliss. Mental discipline and cultivating wholesome mental states are central to Buddhist practice. This usually is centered in a daily meditation or chanting practice and eventually expands to take in the whole Eightfold Path. It's common for people to think that meditation is the only essential part of Buddhism, and the rest is just frill. But in truth Buddhism is a complex of practices that work together and support each other. A daily meditation practice by itself can be very beneficial, but it's a bit like a windmill with several missing blades -- it doesn't work nearly as well as one with all of its parts. Don't Be an Object We've said that deep happiness has no object. So, don't make yourself an object. As long as you are seeking happiness for yourself, you will fail to find anything but temporary happiness. The Rev. Dr. Nobuo Haneda, a Jodo Shinshu priest and teacher, said that "If you can forget your individual happiness, that's the happiness defined in Buddhism. If the issue of your happiness ceases to be an issue, that's the happiness defined in Buddhism." This brings us back to the wholehearted practice of Buddhism. Zen master Eihei Dogen said, "To study the Buddha Way is to study the self; to study the self is to forget the self; to forget the self is to be enlightened by the ten thousand things." The Buddha taught that the stress and disappointment in life (dukkha) come from craving and grasping. But at the root of craving and grasping is ignorance. And this ignorance is of the true nature of things, including ourselves. As we practice and grow in wisdom, we become less and less self-focused and more concerned about the well being of others (see "). There are no shortcuts for this; we can't force ourselves be less selfish. Selflessness grows out of practice. The result of being less self-centered is that we are also less anxious to find a happiness "fix" because that craving for a fix loses its grip. His Holiness the Dalai Lama said, "If you want others to be happy practice compassion; and if you want yourself to be happy practice compassion." That sounds simple, but it takes practice.

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